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Endotracheal intubation, which involves the placement of a flexible tube into the trachea, is one of the highest acuity components of airway management.
Endotracheal tube in place, used with permission
Tracheal intubation is potentially a very dangerous invasive procedure that requires a great deal of clinical experience to master. When performed improperly (e.g., unrecognized esophageal intubation), the associated complications may rapidly lead to the patient's death.
Despite these concerns, endotracheal intubation is still the gold standard in airway care and provides the highest level of protection when moving a casualty, against vomitus and regurgitation, and from upper airway and maxilofacial haemorrhage.
Entotracheal intubation is used:
Most opportunities for intubation occur with anesthesia, prior to surgery. This creates a controlled environment.
Contraindications of endotracheal intubation include:
LEMON
If not yet done, perform a brief history:
If not yet done, perform a brief physical exam, including vital signs, chest auscultation, and fluid status.
Focus on the airway:
There are many factors influencing ease of intubation:
Evaluate using the 3,3,2 rule
Mallampati class: Ask the patient to widely open their mouth. Class IV is associated with more difficult intubations
Preparation is everything. Have a colleague present to assist. Obtain informed consent if possible. Ensure IV access to provide medications and fluids.
Preparing for advanced airway: SOAP-ME
Select and check all equipment. Check suction, laryngoscope light, inflate balloon and check for leaks, lubricate ETT tip and spray lidocaine on outside and inside.
Ensure monitors are in place for the following:
Observe univeral precautions and clean technique.
Pre-oxygenate with 100% oxygen using a facemask. Ensure a pulse oximeter is on.
Place patient on back, with head tilted back in the 'sniffing' position if no spinal injury is suspected. Endeavour to have the oral, pharyngeal, and laryngeal airways all aligned to 180 degrees as much as possible.
Remove dentures. Place a pillow under the head, bringing ear to the level of the sternum. Keep the sternum parallel with the floor.
Comprehensive information on sedation and paralysis can be found here.
In general, prior to intubation, the patient will need to be rendered unconscious and paralyzed to permit insertion of the airway. The patient may already be unconscious, however, making this step unnecessary. There are a select few cases where patients will be left awake before intubation, but these are rare.
Premedication
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Sedative/Anaesthetic
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ParalysisSuccinylcholine if fast-acting but not reversible. It also cannot be used in patients with a history of malignant hyperthermia. It can cause hyperkalemia in rare cases.
Rocuronium has slower onset and is longer-lasting. It can be reversed with neostigmine. |
Before proceeding with paralysis, ensure you are able to ventilate the patient using BVM. However, avoid overzealous positive pressure ventilation, which increases aspiration risk and doesn't appear to increase duration of apnea without desaturation.
Endotracheal tube
Endotracheal tubes are available in various sizes, the larger equipped with inflatable cuffing to seal the tube against the tracheal wall. Use as large a tube as possible. A good rule of finger is to choose tube size according to the patient's pinkie diameter.
Check length. The tube should extend from the mouth to beyond the sternal notch.
Blades
The rigid laryngoscope is designed to lift the tongue and epiglottis, allowing visualization of the vocal cords.
Blades come in different shapes and sizes. The straight Miller blade is useful for children and in situations where the patient has a large epiglottis, as it is designed to lift this structure. Blade sizes are normally 2 or 3 for adults.
The curved MacIntosh blade works best in adults, especially those with obesity. Blade size can be estimated by measuring the length from the patient's lips to the angle of the mandible; blade sizes are normally 3 or 4.
Other Equipment
Filmed at the Dalhousie Learning Resource Centre.
With the head in the sniffing position, use a chin lift and jaw thrust.
Stand behind the patient's head, and ensure the height is comfortable.
Insert the stylet if you will be using it, ensuring it does not reach the end of the tube.
Begin a 20 second count. It can be helpful for the operator to hold their breath during intubation attempts; if they need to breath, the patient does also, and attempts should be paused as the patient is re-oxygenated.
Remove mask and open the mouth.
Hold the laryngoscope in the left hand and turn it on by flipping down the blade. Open the mouth with the fingers of the right hand. If using a straight (Miller) blade, insert on the right side of the tongue and push the tongue to the left. If using a curved blade, insert in the center of the mouth.
Push the blade posteriorly until the tongue is no longer visible. Use the right hand to protect the lower lip.
Once you are past the tongue, and the teeth and lips are clear, lift the laryngoscope forwards and upwards. A 30-45 degree angle is ideal. Avoid levering backwards, ie using biceps power. Again, avoid contact with both upper and lower teeth.
Visualize the vocal cords. If this is not possible, as an assistant to perform the Sellick maneuver, in which the thumb and index finger are used to provide cricoid pressure. However, cricoid pressure can make ventilation or intubation more difficult. Proper technique is important, using 10-20N of pressure (approx 1 kg). BURP - backwards, upwards, rightwards pressure.
Use suction or McGill forceps to remove secretions or material, as required.
If the patient gags, use topical lidocaine or IV anaestesia or benzodiazepines.
Without taking your eyes off the cords, gently pass the endotracheal tube between vocal cords, advancing the cuff completely through and 2-3 cm beyond the cords. The tube should rest just above the carina, or approx 23 cm from the mouth in men and 21 cm in women. For children, this can be estimated as (age in years/2) +12.
If desired, a malleable stylet may be used to provide form to the ETT. Ensure inside of tube is lubricated to facilitate stylet removal.
Keep holding the ET tube and withdraw the blade. Stabilize against the patient's face. Remove the stylet if you have used it.
Inflate the cuff with 10-20 cc of air. Avoid overfilling, as evidenced by increased resistance, as this can cause tracheal damage.
Ventilate through the tube. Look for signs of correct placement (described in next section).
If unsucessful within 20-30 seconds, remove laryngoscope and re-oxygenate patient before continuing.
Do 5 point ausculation first over the epigastrium and then 2x each lung while ventilating. Bubbling sounds over the epigastrium suggests esophageal intubation - deflate cuff and repeat intubation.
If breath sounds are heard more clearly in one lung, mainstem bronchus intubation is likely. Deflate cuff, withdraw ETT by 1-2 cm, and reassess.
A CO2 meter should be applied to the ETT, with colour change observed. Gold is good; yellow is yes.
Once placement is satisfactory, secure tube with twill tape and continue ventilating.
Confirm ETT placement with CXR.
A laryngeal mask airway (LMA) is a suitable alternative to an endotracheal tube, and has the advantage of requiring a lower level of training that an ET tube.
However, it does not protect the airway, and there presents increased risk of aspiration. Also, higher pressures of ventilation are not possible, given the lack of tight seal that is obtained. This makes it less helpful in obese patients or others with increased chest wall resistance.
The tip of the LMA is advanced to the esophageal sphincter. The cuff is inflated to create a seal above the larynx, rather than in it.
Difficult airways includes both difficulty with bag-valve-mask ventilation and difficulty with intubation by a skilled operator. Difficult airways contribute to a high risk of morbidity, such as hypoxic brain injury, and mortality.
Difficult mask ventilation predictors
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Difficult intubation predictors
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Emergency aiway management can also be made much more challenging by the following:
There are difficult airway intubation algorithms specific for different institutions. Some examples are seen with the ASA and the AMA (FIND THESE).
If an airway is proving challenging to secure, there are a number of options:
A failed airway describes a situation where the team cannot intubate and maintain sats above O2 above 90%. In these situations, rescue approaches must rapidly be applied.
Video laryngoscopy uses a device with a fibre-optic camera embedded within the laryngoscope blade. This allows straightforward visualization of the cords for endotracheal tube placement.
Bougie
Other options include:
Short term complications include:
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Longer term complications include:
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Ptolemy - advanced airway in trauma and critical care
University of Virginia - Dept of Anaesthesia
Penn State - Department of Anesthesia, Difficult Airway Modules